Summary
The mouth is the facial opening of the gastrointestinal tract. The oral cavity, which is bounded by the lips anteriorly, cheeks laterally, and the oropharynx posteriorly, encloses the tongue, palates, gums, and teeth. The mouth's primary function is the initiation of the digestion process, which involves ingestion, chewing to break down food (mastication), the release of digestive enzymes from the salivary glands into the oral cavity, and swallowing (deglutition). Secondary functions include taste (gustation), sound production and speech articulation, ventilation, facial expression, and touch. The oral cavity can be anatomically divided into the oral vestibule, the space between the teeth and the mucosa of the lips and cheeks, and the oral cavity proper, the space bounded anteriorly and laterally by the teeth and posteriorly by the oropharynx. The teeth are hard, calcified structures used for sound articulation as well as biting and masticating food. The oral cavity is separated from the nasal cavity by the palate, which is divided into the soft and the hard palate. The masticatory movements of the jaw are enabled by the muscles of mastication, and swallowing is facilitated by the palatine muscles. The tongue is the organ responsible for the gustatory sense, which occurs via stimulation of the taste buds situated in the lingual papillae. The oral cavity is, furthermore, a secondary respiratory channel, which communicates with the nasal cavity posteriorly.

Anatomy
Overview
The oral cavity is divided into two spaces: the oral vestibule and the oral cavity proper.
Anatomical boundaries
-
Oral vestibule
-
Oral cavity proper
Anatomical structures
Structures of the oral cavity |
Lips |
- Form the oral fissure, which is the opening of the oral cavity.
- Can be divided anatomically and histologically into three regions:
|
Oral (buccal) mucosa |
|
Intermaxillary commissure |
|
Teeth |
- Hard, calcified structures used to break down food
- Embedded in the alveolar processes of the mandible and maxilla (see “Teeth” below)
|
Gingiva |
|
Salivary glands |
|
Tongue |
|
Palate |
|
Salivary gland | |


Teeth
Function
- Food break-down into smaller particles, which facilitates digestion and absorption
- Sound production and speech articulation
Types of teeth according to age
-
Primary teeth (also known as deciduous teeth or milk teeth)
- Develop during embryogenesis, erupt during infancy, and shed by the age of 6–12 years
- Five in each quadrant (right, left, upper, and lower) 20 in total
-
Permanent teeth
- Usually completed by 13 years of age
- Eight in each quadrant (right, left, superior, and inferior), 32 in total
- Wisdom teeth (vestigial third molars)
- Usually erupt by the age of 17–38 years
- One in each quadrant (right, left, superior, and inferior), 4 in total
- Partial eruption may cause inflammation and infection in the surrounding gingiva (pericoronitis), which are often indications for extraction.
- Developmental alterations may affect the number, size, shape, and structure of permanent teeth.
- Hypodontia: the congenital absence of one or more teeth
- Hyperdontia: the condition of having one or more extra teeth (supernumerary teeth)



Types of teeth according to function
Type | Characteristics |
Molars |
- Primarily used for grinding of food
- Contain 3–5 cusps
- Upper molars have 3 roots and attach to the maxilla.
- Lower molars have 2 roots and attach to the mandible.
|
Premolars |
- Primarily used for grinding of food
- Contain 2 cusps
- Contain a single root
- The first upper premolar can be bifid.
|
Canines |
- Primarily used for tearing of food
- Contain a single downward cone-shaped prominence
- Contain a single root
|
Incisors |
- Primarily used for biting and cutting food
- Contain a single root
- The free end is shaped like a chisel.
|
Innervation
Structure
Part | Characteristics |
Crown |
|
Neck |
- Located between the crown and the root
|
Root |
- Located in the alveolar surface of the mandible and/or maxilla
- Connected to the bone by the periodontal ligament (a type of modified periosteal layer)
- Covered with cementum
- Mandibular molars have 2 roots.
- Maxillary molars have 3 roots.
|

Composition
Structure | Characteristics |
Enamel |
- The outer layer of the tooth that covers the crown
- Develops from the surface ectoderm
- Produced by ameloblasts
- Whitish, yellowish, or grayish in color
- Hardest part of the tooth
- Most highly mineralized substance in the human body
- Primarily composed of hydroxyapatite
- Does not contain collagen
- Can be damaged and degraded by acids in food and drinks
- Does not contain blood vessels or nerves
|
Dentin |
|
Pulp |
|
Cementum |
- Hard, bone-like structure that covers the root of the tooth
- Composed of hydroxyapatite and collagen
- Secreted by cementoblasts
- Site of attachment for periodontal ligaments
- Forms the cementoenamel junction
|




Gingiva
Structure
-
Definition: a mucosal tissue that covers the following:
-
Description: pinkish color (can be pigmented in dark-skinned individuals)
-
Types: can be divided into the following 2 types:
- Attached gingiva
- Keratinized tissue that is firmly attached to the bone structure
- Fills the interdental spaces beneath each tooth to form the interdental papillae
- Free gingiva: forms a collar around the tooth but is not directly attached to the tooth surface
Function
- Protection of the root of the teeth and the underlying bone from mechanical insults and infections
- Modulation of inflammatory response and tissue repair
Innervation
-
Buccal (outer, anterior) surface
- Maxillary (superior) side: innervated by branches of the infraorbital nerve (anterosuperior, middle, and posterior branches)
- Mandibular (inferior) side: innervated by the mental and buccal nerves
-
Lingual (inner, posterior) surface
- Maxillary (superior) side: innervated by the nasopalatine and greater palatine nerves
- Mandibular (inferior) side: innervated by lingual nerves
Tongue
Structure
-
Location: on the floor of the oral cavity
-
Parts
- Body: anterior two-thirds
- Root: posterior one-third
- Apex: tip of the tongue
- Body and root of the tongues are divided by the V-shaped sulcus terminalis
- Left and right half are divided by the sulcus medianus
-
Attachments
Function
The tongue consist of the following layers:


Lingual papillae

Lingual papillae type | Characteristics | Innervation |
Filiform papillae |
- Most numerous type of the lingual papillae
- Follow the V shape of the sulcus terminalis throughout the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, becoming more transverse at the tip of the tongue
- Slender, small, and conical in shape
- The only keratinized papillae
- Responsible for
- Sensation of touch
- Increasing friction between the tongue and the food to facilitate mastication and digestion
- The only papillae without taste buds
|
|
Fungiform papillae |
- Located on both sides of the body of the tongue and the apex
- Mushroom-shaped
- Deep red color is due to highly vascularized connective tissue core
- Contain very few taste buds
|
|
Foliate papillae |
- Located in front of the palatoglossal arches and the lingual tonsils, on both sides of the tongue
- Rudimentary in humans
- Leaf-shaped
- Contain abundant taste buds
|
Circumvallate papillae |
- The largest of the papillae
-
8–12 in number
- Follow the V shape of the sulcus terminalis anteriorly
-
Dome-shaped (narrower at the base and larger at the apex)
- Surrounded by a slight circular mucosal elevation (vallum or wall) which is separated from the papilla by a circular sulcus
- Covered by stratified squamous epithelium
- Contain abundant taste buds
|
|


Lingual tonsils

Muscles of the tongue
Extrinsic muscles of the tongue
The extrinsic muscles of the tongue originate outside of the tongue.
Muscle | Origin | Insertion | Innervation | Function |
Palatoglossus |
|
- Posterolateral sides of the tongue
|
|
|
Genioglossus |
|
|
|
- Protrusion and depression of the tongue
|
Hyoglossus |
|
|
|
Styloglossus |
|
|
|
The genioglossus normally protrudes the tongue evenly in the midline, but if there is unilateral hypoglossal damage, the tongue will deviate towards the side of the damage.
The Genie propels out of the bottle (the genioglossus protrudes the tongue).


Intrinsic muscles of the tongue
The intrinsic muscles of the tongue originate and insert within the tongue.
Muscle | Origin | Insertion | Innervation | Function |
Superior longitudinal muscle |
|
|
|
|
Inferior longitudinal muscle |
|
|
Vertical muscle |
|
|
- Flattens and broadens the tongue
|
Transverse muscle of the tongue |
|
|
- Narrows and elongates the tongue
|
Blood vessels and nerve supply of the tongue
Structure | Characteristics |
Arterial supply |
|
Venous drainage |
|
Innervation |
-
Motor innervation
-
Sensory innervation
|
All of the tongue muscles (intrinsic and extrinsic) are innervated by the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII), except for the palatoglossus (CN X).

Embryology

Palate
Overview
- The palate divides the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
- Constitutes the roof of the mouth and contributes to the floor of the nose
Embryology
-
4th week of development
- Downward proliferation of the mesoderm covering the forebrain → development of the frontonasal prominence
- Local thickening of the surface ectoderm on both sides of the frontonasal prominence → formation of the nasal placodes
-
5th week of development: invagination of the nasal placodes → formation of medial and lateral nasal prominences
-
6th–7th week of development
-
Medial growth of the maxillary prominences and subsequent fusion with medial nasal prominences → formation of the intermaxillary segment, composed of:
- Development of palatal shelves (outgrowths slanted obliquely downward from the maxillary prominences) and subsequent fusion of the two palatal shelves in the midline → formation of the secondary palate
-
7th–8th week of development: fusion of the primary and secondary palates at the level of the incisive foramen → formation of the permanent palate
Structure | Fused structures | Developmental defects |
Primary palate |
|
|
Secondary palate |
|
|
Permanent palate |
|
|

Structure | Characteristics |
Hard palate |
- A bony framework covered by mucosa
- Formed by the horizontal plate of the palatine bone (posterior) and the palatal shelves of the maxilla (anterior)
- Constitutes the anterior, greater part of the palate
- Contains following foramina (see also skull):
- Receives blood supply from the greater palatine arteries (branches of the descending palatine artery, which originates from the maxillary artery)
- Innervated by the greater palatine and nasopalatine nerves (branches of the maxillary nerve)
|
Soft palate |
- A fibromuscular fold that forms the posterior part of the palate
- Continuous with the palatoglossal folds and the palatopharyngeal folds
- Supplied by the following branches of the external carotid artery:
- Innervated by the lesser palatine nerve (secretomotor, sensory, and taste) and the vagus nerve (motor)
|


Muscles of the palate
Muscle | Origin | Insertion | Innervation | Function |
Tensor veli palatini |
|
|
|
|
Levator veli palatini |
|
|
|
Musculus uvulae |
|
|
- Closure of the nasopharynx
- Uvular movement
|
Palatoglossus |
|
- Posterolateral side of the tongue
|
|
Palatopharyngeus |
|
|
- Closure of the nasopharynx
- Elevation of the pharynx
|
In vagus nerve (CN X) lesions, the uvula deviates away from the side of the lesion.

Salivary glands
In addition to the three larger paired glands (parotid, submandibular gland, and sublingual glands), there are several hundred small salivary glands in the oral cavity and throat. As secretory glands, they secrete up to 1.4 L of saliva per day. The primary functions of saliva include:
-
Digestion
-
Protection of the mucosa and teeth
-
Immunological defense
- Transport of soluble flavors to the taste buds

Parotid gland
-
Located on the surface of the masseter muscle, dorsal to the mandibular ramus and ventrocaudal to the external auditory canal in the retromandibular fossa.
-
Subdivided by the branches of the facial nerve which runs through the parotid gland
-
Its salivary duct (Stensen duct) runs forward along the masseter muscle and opens adjacent to the 2nd molar in the vestibule of the mouth (the space between the cheeks and the teeth).
- Produces mainly serous fluid and ∼ 40% of the total amount of saliva.

Submandibular gland
Sublingual gland
- Located medial to the mandible above the mylohyoid muscle and below the sublingual fold
- Its main salivary duct also ends in the Wharton duct
- Produces mainly mucous fluid
Mastication
Muscles of mastication
Muscle | Origin | Insertion | Innervation | Function | Embryology |
Masseter |
- Zygomatic arch (lower and medial surface)
|
|
|
|
|
Temporalis |
|
|
|
Lateral pterygoid |
|
|
- Bilateral contraction
- Unilateral contraction: laterotrusion (sideways movement) of the mandible to the contralateral side
|
Medial pterygoid |
|
|
|

Function
-
Mastication muscles facilitate the masticatory process via the following:
-
Depression of the mandible (opening the mouth), which involves the following:
-
Elevation of the mandible (closing the mouth), which involves the following:
-
Protraction, which involves the following:
-
Retraction, which involves the following:
To remember the muscles of mastication that close the mouth: “Resist the TEMPtation to eat yuMMy food!” (TEMP = Temporalis; M = Masseter; M = Medial pterigoyd)
Deglutition
Phase | Characteristics |
Oral phase |
|
Pharyngeal phase |
|
Esophageal phase |
- Involuntary process
- Contraction of the pharyngeal constrictor muscles (superior, middle, and inferior) → propulsion of the bolus of food downward to the esophagus
- Esophageal peristalsis → propulsion of the bolus of food towards the stomach
- Affected by achalasia
|
Taste (gustation)
Overview
-
Definition: a chemosensory process triggered by ions and molecules in solution stimulating receptors located in the taste buds
-
Location: Taste buds are primarily located in the tongue, palate, and epiglottis.
-
Tastants: any molecule capable of eliciting taste
Anatomy of taste
Gustatory pathway
The nerves responsible for taste transmit information to the solitary nucleus in the medulla, which in turn projects to three different brain areas:

Taste papillae and taste buds


Physiology of taste
Types of taste | Tastant | Mechanism | Function |
Salty |
- Ions (e.g., Na+, NH4+, K+, SO42-, Cl−)
|
|
- Regulation of electrolyte intake
|
Sour |
|
- Hydrogen ions enter the cell via transmembrane ionic channels → acidic intracellular environment → generation of action potentials in nerve fibers → brain perception of sour taste
|
- Warning signal for toxins
|
Sweet |
|
|
- Increase appetite for calorie-dense foods
|
Bitter |
|
- Warning signal for toxins
|
Umami (savory) |
|
- Increase appetite for protein-rich foods
|


Clinical significance
Neurologic disorders
Inflammatory and infectious diseases
Immunologic disorders
Congenital diseases and dysmorphisms
Other disorders