Learning

Learning is a change in behavior or knowledge through experience or practice. Associative learning involves forming connections between events, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and its consequence. Within this category, classical conditioning links a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit an involuntary, conditioned response. Operant conditioning modifies voluntary behaviors through their consequences, associating actions with reinforcement (increasing behavior) or punishment (decreasing behavior). In non-associative learning (e.g., habituation, sensitization), behavioral change occurs in response to a single, repeated stimulus without forming new associations. Cognitive learning emphasizes internal mental processes in acquiring knowledge and understanding. An example is observational learning, in which individuals learn by watching and imitating others, highlighting the social dimension of human learning.

Associative learning is the process of forming connections or associations between stimuli, or between a behavior and its consequence.

Conditioning

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning refers to the successful pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus to produce an involuntary response; . Pavlov's dog experiment is a historical example of classical conditioning.

Basic processes of classical conditioning

Some terms are used in both classical and operant conditioning, with slightly different meanings (see Basic processes of operant conditioning)

• Acquisition: initial learning and strengthening of an association
• Extinction (psychology): weakening or loss of a learned response when pairing stops
• Spontaneous recovery (psychology): reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
• Stimulus generalization: responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
• Stimulus discrimination: responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus
• Higher-order conditioning: pairing a new stimulus with an existing conditioned stimulus
• The success of conditioning depends on, among other things:
  • Interstimulus interval (ISI): time interval between the neutral and unconditioned stimulus
    • The ideal interval varies based on the biological system involved. For rapid autonomic or motor responses like the eyeblink reflex, the ISI must be extremely short (often less than a second). If the interval is too long, the organism fails to perceive a functional link between the two stimuli.
  • Order in which the unconditioned and neutral stimuli are presented: The greatest effects are achieved when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus.

The neutral stimulus must serve as a signal. If the interval is too long or the order is reversed, the predictive utility of the neutral stimulus is lost, preventing the transition of the neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning techniques

The following methods are often used to modify behavior in therapeutic settings.

• Systemic desensitization: increasing the level of exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli while performing progressive muscle relaxation
• Flooding: exposing the patient to real stimuli until they achieve complete relaxation in that situation
• Implosion: exposing the patient to an imaginary anxiety-provoking stimulus until they become more comfortable with it
• Aversion therapy: using an unpleasant or aversive stimulus to discourage negative behaviors

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning refers to the successful association of a behavior with a reinforcement or punishment, leading to a voluntary increase (with reinforcement) or decrease (with punishment) of the behavior. The Skinner operant conditioning quadrants describe the possibilities for reinforcing or weakening a behavior.

So-called "negative reinforcement" may start with the word "negative," but it increases (!) the likelihood of a behavior because an unpleasant stimulus is removed! So remember: "Reinforcement" always means that the behavior subsequently increases.

Reinforcement schedules

• Continuous reinforcement
  • The desired behavior is reinforced every time it is shown.
  • Consequence: Behavior is learned particularly quickly.
• Intermittent reinforcement
  • Fixed-ratio: Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.
  • Variable-ratio: Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses.
  • Fixed-interval: Reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time.
  • Variable-interval: Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable amount of time.

To learn a behavior both quickly and make it last, it's best to start with continuous reinforcement for rapid initial learning, then switch to variable intermittent reinforcement (using variable ratio or variable interval schedules) to build long-term persistence.

Basic processes of operant conditioning

Some terms are used in both operant and classical conditioning, with slightly different meanings (see Basic processes of classical conditioning).

• Extinction: entirely extinguishing a conditioned behavior because it is no longer reinforced or punished
• Stimulus generalization: performing the learned behavior in response to similar stimuli
• Stimulus discrimination: performing the learned behavior only in response to the specific discriminative stimulus
  • Discriminative stimulus: cue signaling that a behavior will be reinforced or punished
• Primary reinforcers: stimuli that satisfy basic innate needs (e.g., food, water, pleasure) or that oppose their satisfaction (e.g., painful stimuli)
• Secondary reinforcers: stimuli that become reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, grades, praise)
• Escape learning: learning a behavior to stop an ongoing unpleasant stimulus
• Avoidance learning: learning a behavior to prevent an unpleasant stimulus before it starts

Operant conditioning techniques

• Prompting: guiding behavior with external cues or physical assistance (e.g., guiding a hand)
• Chaining: building a complex behavior by linking a sequence of simpler steps
  • Backward chaining: teaching the steps of a sequence in reverse order, reinforcing the last step first
  • Forward chaining: teaching the steps of a sequence in chronological order, reinforcing the first step first
• Shaping (successive approximation): reinforcing gradual steps that get closer to a desired target behavior
• Token economy: reinforcing positive behaviors by providing tangible rewards (e.g., tokens, stickers) that can be exchanged later for primary rewards
• Biofeedback: using real-time information on involuntary physiological processes to help the patient monitor and control their response to stimuli
• Premack principle: using the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity as a reinforcer for completing a less preferred one

Somatic symptom disorder
Somatic symptom disorder is a condition in which an individual experiences excessive anxiety and preoccupation with physical symptoms that have no adequate medical explanation. The disorder can be maintained or worsened through operant conditioning. When expressing physical symptoms or engaging in illness-related behaviors, an individual might receive positive reinforcement, such as increased attention or being excused from responsibilities (secondary gain). Simultaneously, negative reinforcement can occur when focusing on symptoms or seeking medical help temporarily reduces underlying anxiety or allows avoidance of stressful situations. These reinforcing consequences inadvertently strengthen the symptom expression and illness behaviors, contributing to the persistence of the disorder.

Mowrer's two-factor theory

Mowrer's two-factor theory explains how phobias and avoidance learning develop through a combination of classical and operant conditioning:

1. Classical conditioning: acquisition of the behavior
   • An initially neutral stimulus becomes associated with an aversive event, leading to a conditioned fear response.
   • Example: A child is bitten by a dog, after which the sight of dogs becomes a conditioned stimulus that now elicits fear.
2. Operant conditioning: maintenance of the behavior
   • The relief from anxiety reinforces the avoidance behavior through negative reinforcement.
   • Example: The child crosses the street whenever a dog appears.

Fear is acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning!

Biological processes that affect associative learning

• Biological preparedness
  • Organisms are biologically predisposed to learn associations that are important for survival.
  • Example: taste aversion
    • If a person eats a new food and gets sick hours later, they will likely develop a strong, long-lasting aversion to the taste and smell of that food.
• Instinctive drift
  • Learned behaviors can gradually revert to innate patterns, showing biological limits on conditioning.
  • Example: animal training experiments
    • Behavioral psychologists attempted to teach a raccoon to put coins into a piggy bank in exchange for a food reward. The raccoon learned the task, but it soon began to "drift"—it started holding the coins, rubbing them together, and "washing" them, which is its innate, instinctual behavior for handling food.

In non-associative learning, a behavior change occurs in response to a single, repeated stimulus. In contrast to learning through conditioning, no association is formed between different stimuli or between a behavior and its consequence.

• Habituation: a decreased response to a repeated, harmless stimulus
• Dishabituation: the sudden return of a habituated response after a new, different stimulus is presented
• Sensitization (psychology): an increased response to a wide range of stimuli after exposure to one strong or noxious stimulus

Cognitive learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and sensory input, emphasizing mental processes such as attention, memory, and reasoning rather than direct reinforcement or conditioning.

Observational learning

Social learning theory by Albert Bandura

• Posits that individuals can learn new behaviors, values, and attitudes by observing and imitating the actions of others, who act as "models".
• Learning occurs through vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment:
  • An observer's choice to imitate a behavior is based on whether the model is rewarded or punished for it.

The four phases of observational learning

• Attention: The observer must first focus on the model.
• Retention: The observer must then remember the behavior they watched.
• Reproduction: The observer must be physically and mentally able to replicate the action.
• Motivation: The observer must want to perform the behavior, a desire often fueled by seeing the model rewarded.

The Bobo doll experiment
In Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, children watched an adult interact with an inflatable Bobo doll; some saw the adult behave aggressively (hitting and yelling), while others saw calm interaction. When the children were later allowed to play alone with the doll, those who had witnessed aggression imitated the same aggressive behaviors, whereas the children who saw calm behavior did not, proving that learning can occur simply by watching others.

Biological processes that affect observational learning

• Mirror neuron: a brain cell that fires both when an individual performs a specific action and when they observe another individual performing that same action
  • The exact function of mirror neurons is yet to be determined.
• Vicarious emotions: feelings one experiences in response to observing or imagining the emotional state of another person
  • Mechanism behind empathy
  • Theorized to be closely linked to the activity of mirror neurons

Latent learning

• Definition: learning that occurs without conscious effort, awareness, intention, or reinforcement and remains hidden until there is a motivation or need to demonstrate it
• Example: One might learn the location of various shops in a mall simply by walking through, only demonstrating this knowledge later when looking for a specific store.

Insight learning

• Definition: learning characterized by mentally reorganizing the components of a problem, leading to an abrupt understanding of the solution without trial-and-error ("Aha!" moment)
• Example: After struggling with a complex math problem and taking a break, an individual might experience a sudden realization of the solution while engaged in an unrelated activity.

Self-regulated learning

• Definition: the process of actively controlling one’s own learning by setting goals, monitoring progress, managing attention, and adjusting strategies
• Example: A student rewards himself with a visit to friends after a successful day of studying.