Summary
Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is an obstetric emergency and is defined as a blood loss ≥ 1000 mL or blood loss presenting with signs or symptoms of hypovolemia within 24 hours of delivery. It is the number one cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. PPH is generally associated with symptoms of hypovolemia. The onset may be within 24 hours (primary PPH) to 12 weeks postpartum (secondary PPH). The most significant causes of postpartum hemorrhage are uterine atony, maternal birth trauma, abnormal placental separation, velamentous cord insertion, and coagulation disorders. Clinical findings are related to the amount of blood loss and can include anemia (e.g., lightheadedness, pallor) or hypovolemic shock (e.g., hypotension, tachycardia). Diagnosis is done through early recognition of clinical findings, systematic evaluation of the most common causes, and, in some cases, confirmed with ultrasound. Treatment depends on the underlying condition and may include general measures to control blood loss and maintain adequate perfusion to vital organs, suturing of bleeding lacerations, active management of the third stage of labor like manual maneuvers to aid in placental separation, and use of uterotonic agents for uterine atony. A hysterectomy is often considered as a last resort in uncontrolled postpartum hemorrhage.
Overview
Definitions [1]
Blood loss ≥ 1000 mL or blood loss presenting with signs or symptoms of hypovolemia within 24 hours of delivery.
- Primary PPH: (most common) blood loss within 24 hours postpartum
- Secondary PPH: blood loss from 24 hours to 12 weeks postpartum
Epidemiology [1][2]
- Leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide
- Approx. 5% of obstetric patients experience PPH.
- PPH represents 12% of maternal deaths in the US.
Etiology [1]
- Uterine atony (most common)
- Uterine inversion
- Abnormal placental separation (e.g., retention of placenta, abnormal placentation)
- Birth trauma: spontaneous or iatrogenic (e.g., lacerations, uterine rupture)
- Velamentous cord insertion
- Bleeding diathesis (e.g., Von Willebrand disease, eclampsia, placental abruption, DIC)
Clinical features
- Rapid, heavy vaginal bleeding
- Possible signs of hypovolemia/blood loss: decreased blood pressure, increased heart rate, dizziness
Diagnosis
- Laboratory measures: e.g., hematocrit, hemoglobin to estimate blood loss
- Physical examination findings: e.g., lacerations, hematoma, any other visible cause of bleeding, boggy uterus
-
Speculum examination: to diagnose the following
- Uterine inversion
- Retained placental tissue or membranes
-
Ultrasound
- Used to determine the correlation between the placenta and the cervical os
- Helpful to diagnose the following:
- Uterine atony: showing, e.g., an echogenic endometrial stripe
- Abnormal placental attachment: showing, e.g., thinning of uterine myometrial wall
- Color Doppler ultrasound: to confirm abnormal placental attachment (showing, e.g., turbulent blood flow)
Management
-
General measures: to control blood loss and ensure perfusion of vital organs
- Monitoring of vital signs and urine output
- Oxygenation
- Two large-bore IV access (≥ 16 gauge) and ice pack
- Fluid therapy (with intravenous crystalloid solutions)
- Blood transfusions; (whole blood or red blood cell concentrates) and/or platelet transfusions, if necessary
-
Surgical procedures: in cases of uncontrolled bleeding
-
Ligation of uterine or internal iliac arteries, or uterine artery embolization
- Decreases bleeding by reducing myometrial perfusion
- Fertility remains intact because of collateral blood supply by the ovarian arteries.
- Uterine suturing (e.g., B-Lynch suture)
- Hysterectomy: generally as last resort, except in placenta accreta spectrum
-
Ligation of uterine or internal iliac arteries, or uterine artery embolization
Prevention [1][3]
- Antenatal assessment of risk factors (e.g., identification of anemia and coagulopathies, sonography to identify placenta accreta in women with a history of cesarean deliveries)
-
Active management of the third stage of labor: delivery of the placenta which involves the following components
- Uterotonic agents (; IV/IM oxytocin)
-
Controlled umbilical cord traction (Brandt-Andrews maneuver)
- One hand is placed on the abdomen, securing the uterine fundus and preventing uterine inversion.
- The other hand applies steady downward traction on the umbilical cord.
-
External compression of the uterus and bimanual uterine massage: a manual technique to promote uterine contractions and to tamponade the vascular sinuses in the uterus
- A clenched fist is inserted into the anterior vaginal fornix and exerts pressure on the anterior wall of the uterus.
- The other hand is positioned externally and presses against the inner fist, located in the uterine body.
-
Fritsch maneuver
- One hand grasps the labia majora and presses it firmly into the vulva.
- Simultaneously, the second hand is positioned at the posterior side of the uterus (as in Credé maneuver) and is pushed distally against the other hand.
- The placenta is manually removed.
- Fundal massage
- Credé maneuver
- Avoidance of unnecessary episiotomy and instrumented delivery
Complications [2]
- Anemia
- Hypovolemic shock
- Thromboembolism
- Sheehan syndrome
- Infection
- Maternal death
- Fetal death (velamentous cord insertion)
- Abdominal compartment syndrome
The causes of postpartum hemorrhage include the 4 T's: Tone (uterine atony), Trauma (e.g., laceration, uterine inversion), Tissue (retained placenta), Thrombin (bleeding diathesis).
Uterine atony
Definition
- Failure of the uterus to effectively contract after complete or incomplete delivery of the placenta, which can lead to severe postpartum bleeding from the myometrial vessels
Epidemiology
- Most common cause of PPH cases (approx. 80%) [1]
Pathophysiology
- Normally, the myometrium contracts and compresses the spiral arteries, which stops bleeding after delivery.
- Failure of the myometrium to effectively contract can lead to rapid and severe hemorrhage.
Risk factors [4]
-
Overdistention of the uterus
- Large for gestational age newborn (> 4000 g)
- Multiple pregnancies
- Polyhydramnios
-
Exhausted myometrium
- Multiparity
- Postterm pregnancy
- Prolonged delivery
- Prolonged oxytocin use
-
Anatomical abnormalities
- Fetal, uterine, abnormal placental implantation
- Uterine leiomyomas
- Infection: e.g., chorioamnionitis
-
Other
- Medications lowering contractions (e.g., anesthetics, MgSO4)
- Preterm delivery
- Maternal BMI > 40 kg/m2
Clinical features [1][5]
- Profuse vaginal bleeding
- Soft, enlarged (increased fundal height), boggy ascending uterus
Diagnosis
- Bimanual pelvic exam after emptying the bladder
- Speculum examination of the vagina and cervix to evaluate possible sources of extrauterine bleeding (e.g., vaginal injury caused during birth)
Treatment [1][2][4][5]
- Active management of the third stage of labor: See “Prevention” in “Overview” section above.
-
Hemorrhage control
-
Uterotonic agents
- IV oxytocin (diluted in saline)
- IM carboprost tromethamine: if the patient does not suffer from asthma
- IM methylergonovine: if no hypertension or arterial disease is present
- Prostaglandins such as misoprostol; : useful when injectable uterotonic agents are unavailable or contraindicated (can also be given intracavitary)
- Tranexamic acid: given when initial therapies fail to stop the bleeding
- Early clamping and cutting of the umbilical cord
-
Uterotonic agents
-
Exclude coagulation disorders: e.g., disseminated intravascular coagulation, hyperfibrinolysis
- Blood coagulation should be tested (alternatively a thrombelastogram should be performed).
- Treatment is based on the results of the coagulation panel.
- Substitution of deficient coagulation factors such as FFP or prothrombin complex concentrate
- Administration of tranexamic acid in hyperfibrinolysis
-
Surgical procedures
- Uterine balloon tamponade or packing: if severe bleeding persists, regardless of adequate general measures
- Compression sutures (e.g., B-Lynch suture)
- Surgical ligation of uterine or internal iliac arteries
- Last resort: hysterectomy
Complications
Uterine inversion
Definition
- Obstetric emergency in which the uterine fundus collapses into the endometrial cavity, turning the uterus partially or completely inside out following vaginal delivery.
Epidemiology
- Uncommon complication of vaginal birth
- Morbidity and mortality may occur in approx. 41% of cases [6]
Pathophysiology
- Partial uterine wall relaxation → prolapse of the uterine wall through the cervical orifice → if simultaneous downward traction of the uterus is performed → inversion of uterus
Types
Depends on the severity of the inversion [7]
- Partial uterine inversion: uterine fundus collapses into the endometrial cavity, without surpassing the cervix
- Complete uterine inversion: uterine fundus collapses into the endometrial cavity, coming through the cervix, remaining within the vaginal introitus
- Uterine prolapse: uterine fundus is coming through the vaginal introitus
Risk factors [1][3][8]
- Uncontrolled cord traction and/or excessive fundal pressure (Crede maneuver) during the third stage of labor
- Fetal macrosomia
- Previous uterine inversion
- Use of uterine muscle relaxants during the antepartum period (e.g., MgSO4)
- Difficult removal of the placenta
- Nulliparity
- Uterine anomalies (e.g., relaxed lower uterine segment and cervix)
- Uterine leiomyoma
- Placenta accreta
- Retained placental tissue
- Prolonged delivery
Clinical features
- Brisk postpartum hemorrhage
- Pelvic pain
- Round mass (inverted uterus) protruding from the cervix or vagina
- Absent fundus (top of the uterus) at the periumbilical position during transabdominal palpation
- Urinary retention
Diagnosis
- See “Clinical features” above.
-
Ultrasound
- Confirms diagnosis in uncertain cases
- Hyperechoic mass in the vagina with central hypoechoic cavity
Treatment
General measures and immediate manual uterine reposition should be done simultaneously. [7]
- General measures: See “Management” in “Overview” section above.
-
Reposition uterus manually
- Technique [1][3]
- Following successful uterine repositioning: oxytocin to induce placental extraction and prevent reinversion
- If not possible: administer uterine relaxant (e.g., MgSO4, nitroglycerin, or terbutaline)
- If ineffective: surgical repair
Complications
- Hypovolemic shock
- Neurogenic shock
- Maternal death
Abnormal placental separation
Retained placenta [9]
Definition
- Retention of the placental tissue inside the uterine cavity following the first 30 min postpartum.
Epidemiology
- Approx. 3% of vaginal deliveries [9]
Etiology
- Atonic uterus: See “Uterine atony” section above.
- Placenta accreta spectrum: See “Abnormal placentation” below.
- Premature closure of the cervix obstructing placental expulsion
Classification
- Adherent placenta: a placenta that is not detached because of insufficient uterine contractions (e.g., uterine atony)
- Trapped placenta: a detached placenta that cannot be delivered spontaneously or with light cord traction because of cervical closure
Risk factors
- Prior history of retained placenta (most common)
- Placenta previa
- Placenta accreta spectrum
- Prior cesarean delivery
- Uterine fibroids
- Prolonged use of uterotonic medication (e.g., oxytocin)
- Preterm labor
- Assisted reproduction procedures (e.g., in vitro fertilization)
Clinical features
- Main feature: severe bleeding before placental delivery
- Physical examination
Diagnosis
- Postpartum manual palpation and speculum inspection of the placenta and fetal membranes
- Ultrasound: showing a focal endometrial mass
Treatment
- General measures: See “Management” in “Overview” section above.
- Active management of the third stage of labor: See “Prevention” in “Overview” section above.
-
Manual removal of placenta
- Consider administering nitroglycerin.
- Perform under adequate regional or general anesthesia.
- Administer prophylactic antibiotics.
- Technique
- Keep fingers tightly together and use the edge of the hand to make a space between the placenta and the uterine wall to detach the placenta completely.
- After placenta is detached, withdraw the hand from the uterus, bringing the placenta with it.
- With the other hand, perform countertraction to the fundus by pushing it in the opposite direction of the hand that is removing the placenta.
-
Surgical management
- Indicated in cases where manual extraction fails
- Preferred method: suction curettage (associated with a risk of uterine perforation)
- Uterine balloon tamponade or packing: if severe bleeding persists
Abnormal placentation [10][11]
Definition
- Defective decidual layer of the placenta leading to abnormal attachment and separation during postpartum period
Epidemiology
- Placental detachment abnormalities due to anatomical causes occur in up to 1% of all pregnancies.
Classification
Depending on the depth of implantation of the trophoblast in the uterine wall [12]
- Placenta accreta: chorionic villi attach to the myometrium (but do not invade or penetrate the myometrium); rather than the decidua basalis (up to 75% of cases)
- Placenta increta: chorionic villi invade or penetrate into the myometrium (approx. 20% of cases)
- Placenta percreta: chorionic villi penetrate the through the myometrium, penetrate the serosa, and in some cases, adjacent organs/structures (approx. 5% of cases)
Pathophysiology [13]
- The exact pathogenesis is unknown
- Two main theories include
- Defective decidua: complete or partial lack of decidua in an area of previous scarring within the endometrial-myometrial interface
- Excessive trophoblastic invasion: abnormal growth → uncontrolled invasion of villi through the myometrium, including its vascular system
Risk factors [13]
Any prior damage to the endometrium
- History of uterine surgery (e.g., endometrial ablation, hysteroscopic removal of intrauterine adhesions, dilatation, curettage)
- Prior births by cesarean delivery
- Placenta previa
- Multiparity
- Advanced maternal age
- Assisted reproduction procedures
- Asherman syndrome
The types of abnormal placental attachment: Placenta Accreta “Attaches” to the myometrium, placenta Increta “Invades” the myometrium, and placenta Percreta “Perforates” the myometrium.
Clinical features
-
Most common manifestations
- Abnormal uterine bleeding
- Postpartum hemorrhage at the time of attempted manual separation of the placenta
-
Other manifestations
- Fever
- Rarely, hematuria in placenta percreta [14]
Diagnosis [15][16]
- Clinical diagnosis: See “Clinical features” above.
-
Ultrasound
- Thinning of uterine myometrial wall
- Placental lacunae irregularly shaped, giving the placenta a moth-eaten appearance
- Disruption of the junction between the bladder wall and uterine serosa
- Loss of clear space behind the placenta
- Specific to placenta increta/percreta
- Increased number of placental vessels extend beyond the myometrium into another serosa
- Focal mass of placental tissue extending through the uterine serosa into adjacent organs
-
Doppler ultrasonography: confirmatory imaging
- Shows turbulent blood flow
- Increased myometrial vascularity
- MRI: performed if ultrasound studies are inconclusive
Treatment [1]
-
Prevention of predelivery
- Scheduled delivery
- Avoid pelvic exams
- Avoid sexual intercourse
- Preoperative planning for PPH
- Active management of the third stage of labor: See “Prevention” in “Overview” section above.
- General measures: See “Management” in “Overview” section above.
-
Surgical procedures
- Dilation and curettage (D&C) or vacuum removal of RPOC under anesthesia/regional anesthesia
-
Cesarean hysterectomy
- Generally, the mode of delivery and treatment for placenta accreta spectrum
- The placenta is left in place after delivery and complete hysterectomy is performed.
Uterine-preserving measures are relatively contraindicated in placenta accreta spectrum due to high maternal mortality!
Prognosis [10]
- Morbidity is approx. 27%
- Placenta percreta has the highest complication rate.
Birth trauma
Epidemiology
- Second most common cause (20% of PPH cases) [2]
Etiology
-
Iatrogenic injury: e.g., during instrumental delivery, cesarean delivery
- Cervical laceration: most commonly caused by forceps use
- Lower vaginal trauma: most commonly due to episiotomy
- Uterine rupture: caused by previous cesarean delivery
-
Other
- Fetal macrosomia
- Malpresentation of the fetus
- Uncontrolled delivery
- Prolonged second stage of labor
Clinical features
- Hematoma or bleeding laceration of the female genital tract
-
Features of retroperitoneal hematoma
- Pelvic pain
- Signs and symptoms of hypovolemia (e.g., tachycardia, hypotension, diaphoresis, pale skin, dizziness)
- Features of uterine rupture
Treatment [2]
-
Following vaginal delivery
- Supportive measures (e.g., fundal massage, fluid therapy, uterotonic agents)
- Immediate repair of visible bleeding lacerations
- Hemodynamically stable patient: arterial embolization
-
Hemodynamically unstable patient
- Incision and drainage of hematoma
- If the cause of bleeding is not identified: immediate laparotomy
-
Following cesarean delivery
- Supportive measures
- Uterine artery ligation
- If the above techniques fail: uterine compression suture technique (e.g., B-Lynch suture)
- Hysterectomy: as a last resort
Velamentous cord insertion
Definition
- Abnormal cord insertion into chorioamniotic membranes, resulting in exposed vessels only surrounded by fetal membranes, in the absence of protective Wharton jelly [17]
Epidemiology [18]
- Occurs in 1% of single pregnancies
- Up to 15% in twin pregnancies
- Associated with increased risk of hemorrhage during the third stage of labor
Risk factors
- Placenta previa
- Low-lying placenta
- Multiple pregnancies
- Assisted reproduction procedures (e.g., in vitro fertilization)
- Succenturiate placenta
Pathogenesis
The following two mechanisms have been described [19]
- Trophotropism theory: gradual placental migration towards a well-vascularized uterine section, displacing the cord towards the periphery of the placenta
- Polarity theory: oblique implantation of the blastocyst leading to an abnormal cord insertion
Clinical features
- Increased risk of hemorrhage during the third stage of labor
- Possible painless vaginal bleeding, typically in the third trimester: Blood loss occurs only in the fetus.
- Features of fetal hypoxia, especially following rupture of membranes (ROM)
Diagnosis
-
Prenatal period
-
Transabdominal ultrasound: helps to determine the correlation between the placenta and the cervical os
- Vessels pass over the internal cervical os
- Membranous umbilical vessels located at the placental cord insertion site and the umbilical cord sheath ends before the placenta
- Umbilical cord membranes are continuous with the chorionic plate
- Transvaginal color doppler ultrasound: indicated to rule out vasa previa [20]
-
Transabdominal ultrasound: helps to determine the correlation between the placenta and the cervical os
- Intrapartum clinical examination: See “Clinical features” above.
Management
-
If diagnosed prenatally
- Regular fetal assessment (e.g., fetal growth, fetal heart rate tracing)
- Deliver ≤ 40 weeks gestation
-
If diagnosed intrapartum
- Vaginal delivery if there are no signs of fetal distress
-
Emergency cesarean delivery if
- Signs of fetal distress
- PPH
- Vasa previa
Complications
- Vasa previa
- Fetal death
- Premature infant
- Fetal growth restriction
- Fetal malformation [21]