Cognition, intelligence, and theories of development

Cognition encompasses the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. It includes key functions such as perception, attention, memory, learning, language, and problem-solving. Developmental theories, such as Piaget’s stage model, describe how cognitive abilities emerge and transform throughout childhood and adolescence. A central aspect of cognition is intelligence—the capacity to learn, reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. Variations in intelligence result from a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, and several major theories attempt to explain its structure and components. Standardized intelligence tests are commonly used to assess these abilities, yielding a quantitative measure often expressed as an IQ score.

Cognition refers to the mental processes of gaining knowledge and understanding via thinking, experiencing, and sensing. Cognitive processes include perception, attention, memory, learning, language, and problem-solving.

Information-processing theory

The information-processing theory is a framework that compares the human brain to a computer, suggesting that cognition involves a series of steps. This model views cognitive development as a continuous maturation of the brain's processing ability.

• Input: Information is first gathered from the environment via sensory stimuli (sensory memory).
• Processing: The information is then manipulated, encoded, and stored (utilizing working memory and short-term memory).
• Storage: Information is retained indefinitely in long-term memory.
• Output: The processed information is translated into behaviors or actions.

Controlled vs automatic cognitive processing

Cognitive processing can occur along a range from controlled (conscious) to automatic (unconscious), reflecting differences in the amount of attention, awareness, and mental effort required to perform a task.

Attention (cognition)

Attention is the cognitive process of actively concentrating on a specific stimulus or task to enhance perception, processing, and response.

• Selective attention: the process of focusing on a particular stimulus while filtering out other competing stimuli in the environment
• Divided attention (multi-tasking): the ability to distribute mental resources across multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously (often resulting in reduced performance on each task)

Memory

See "Memory (cognition)."

Language

See "Language development."

Problem-solving

Types of problems

• Well-defined problems: feature clear starting points, goals, and defined solution paths or rules
  • E.g., solving a math equation, assembling a puzzle
• Ill-defined problems: lack clear goals and defined solution paths, featuring ambiguous or subjective success criteria
  • E.g., designing a beautiful website, resolving an ethical dilemma

Approaches to problem-solving

• Trial and error: involves attempting various solutions sequentially until one proves successful
• Algorithms: employ a precise, step-by-step procedure guaranteed to yield the correct solution if followed accurately (e.g., a mathematical formula)
• Heuristics: utilize mental shortcuts, often based on previous experiences, or "rules of thumb" to simplify problems for faster solutions, though potentially sacrificing accuracy

Barriers to effective problem-solving and cognitive biases

• Cognitive biases: See "Cognitive biases" in "Patient safety."

Biological factors that affect cognition

Cognition is shaped by an interplay of biological factors, including the integrity of key brain structures, the balance of neurotransmitters that mediate communication between neurons, as well as genetic influences and overall physical and neurological health (e.g., stress levels, nutrition), all of which determine how efficiently information is processed, stored, and applied.

Intelligence, or intellectual functioning, is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills, including learning from experience, adapting to the environment, understanding complex ideas, and using reasoning to solve problems and make decisions.

Variations in intelligence

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

• Introduced in 1912 by German psychologist William Stern
• Modern standardized intelligence tests:
  • Determine IQ scores by comparing an individual's performance to a norm group, typically based on age
  • Designed to follow a normal distribution (bell curve) with a mean set at 100 and a standard deviation of 15
• Intellectual disability: characterized by significantly below-average intellectual functioning (IQ typically ≤ 70) and concurrent deficits in adaptive functioning (daily conceptual, social, and practical skills)
• Intellectual giftedness: often defined by significantly above-average intellectual functioning (IQ typically ≥ 130), though it may also include exceptional specific talents

Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence

Individual intelligence varies due to the complex interaction between nature (heredity) and nurture (environment).

• Heredity: establishes a significant genetic foundation for intellectual potential
• Environment: influences how the genetic potential is realized; includes factors like prenatal health, nutrition, education, and socioeconomic status
  • Exposure to environmental adversity (e.g., trauma, malnutrition, sensory deprivation), particularly during crucial developmental periods, can harm cognitive function.
  • Conversely, environmental enrichment and learning opportunities can enhance cognitive development.
• Sociocultural context: shapes how intelligence is defined and which cognitive skills are valued within different societies

Theories of intelligence

Various theories address different aspects of development (e.g., cognitive, moral, and social) during childhood and adolescence.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

According to the epistemologist and developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, cognitive development occurs as children actively construct their understanding of the world by interacting with their environment. This understanding is organized into schemas that are mutually adapted to the environment. In the course of development, the child passes through specific developmental stages, in which two cognitive processes are crucial:

• Assimilation: new information or experiences are interpreted using existing cognitive schemas
• Accommodation: existing cognitive schemas are modified or expanded to incorporate new information

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.

• Key concepts:
  • Zone of proximal development: gap between what a child can do alone and with guidance
  • Scaffolding: temporary support provided by more knowledgeable others to complete a task
  • Role of language and cultural tools:
    • Language is essential for internal thought processes and social interaction.
    • Culture provides "tools of thought" (e.g., language, counting systems) that shape cognition.

Theory of mind

• Definition: the cognitive ability to understand that others have their own thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and emotions that may differ from one’s own
• Develops around age 4–5
• Important for empathy and social reasoning

Attachment theory

Attachment theory explains how early emotional bonds (attachment) between an infant and their primary caregiver shape social, emotional, and cognitive development throughout life. According to this theory, humans are biologically predisposed to form such bonds, which provide a sense of security and serve as a foundation for future relationships. A secure attachment in infancy leads to better emotional regulation, social competence, and resilience later in life.

• Strange Situation Test:
  • A child (1–2 years old) is confronted with a series of separations and reunions with their caregiver and the presence of a stranger.
  • Based on the child's behavior, four attachment styles are distinguished:
    • Secure attachment: The child shows a clear preference for the caregiver and reacts to the separation with distress, but is quickly comforted by the caregiver upon their return.
    • Avoidant attachment: The child shows little preference between the caregiver and a stranger and reacts little to the caregiver's return.
    • Ambivalent attachment: The child reacts to the separation with pronounced distress, but displays conflictant behavior upon the caregiver's return.
    • Disorganized attachment: The child reacts to the caregiver's return with bizarre or stereotypical behavior. and does not reciprocate the offer of contact.

Parenting styles

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

In Kohlberg's stages of moral development, a person's initially self-centered thinking and acting develops more and more towards ethically differentiated thinking.