Summary
Vertebral fractures can be caused by direct or indirect trauma and are more likely to occur in patients with decreased bone density (osteoporosis, osseous metastases). Fractures may be stable or, if there is a risk of damage to the spinal cord, unstable. Diagnosis involves a detailed neurological exam and imaging (x-ray, CT, etc). Stable fractures can be treated conservatively with analgesics and physical therapy. Unstable fractures require surgical intervention such as spinal fusion (spondylodesis), which joins vertebrae through internal fixation. Due to the close proximity to essential anatomical structures (spinal cord, blood vessels), the vertebral fractures and their surgical treatment can cause serious complications.
Epidemiology
- Common in elderly women (osteoporotic fractures) and young men (traumatic injuries)
- Location: ∼ 50% in the cervical spine and ∼ 50% in the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral spine
References:[1]
Epidemiological data refers to the US, unless otherwise specified.
Etiology
- Trauma (e.g., car accidents, falls, gunshot wounds)
-
Pathological fractures
- Osteoporosis (most common)
- Malignancy (e.g., bone metastases)
- Infection (e.g., Pott disease)
References:[1][2]
Classification
Stability of vertebral fractures
- Stable
-
Unstable
- The structural stability of the spine is compromised.
- The spine can move as two or more independent units, which may cause spinal cord injury.
- Mid-column and posterior column fractures
A dorsal spine injury (vertebral arches, processes, and their ligaments) is always unstable and has a high probability of spinal cord injury.
Types of vertebral fractures
-
Vertebral compression fracture (most common type)
- Causes
- Pathological fractures, e.g., due to osteoporosis (most common cause) or bone metastases
- Trauma
- Clinical features
- Usually stable
- Often asymptomatic, but may cause acute back pain and point tenderness
- Long-term findings after multiple vertebral compression fractures
- Subtypes
- Wedge fracture: characterized by a loss of height, predominantly of the anterior part of the vertebral body, which results in a wedge-shaped vertebra
- Vertebra plana: advanced compression fracture with a loss of height of the entire vertebral body, both anteriorly and posteriorly
- Codfish vertebra: characterized by loss of height of the central part of the vertebral body, resulting in a biconcave vertebral body
- Causes
-
Burst fracture: fracture of the vertebra in multiple locations
- Result of compression trauma with severe axial loading
- Possible displacement of bone fragments into the spinal canal
- Fracture-dislocation: : fractured vertebra and disrupted ligaments; instability may cause spinal cord compression
References:[2][3]
Clinical features
- Local pain on pressure, percussion, and compression
- Palpable unevenness or disruption of the vertebral process alignment
- Paravertebral hematoma
- Weakness or numbness/tingling
- Neurogenic shock
- Strong ventral compression with structural kyphosis
- Depending on complications and any accompanying injuries, further symptoms, potentially as severe as paralysis, are possible.
References:[4][5]
Subtypes and variants
Atlas fracture
- Definition: fracture of the atlas (first cervical vertebra)
-
Symptoms
- Painful restriction of movement
- Neck ache, paravertebral hematoma with dysphagia
- Neurologic deficits, such as Horner syndrome
- An asymptomatic course is also possible.
-
Diagnostics
- Cervical spine x-ray: fractures and dislocations
- CT: best for Jefferson fractures
- Arteriography: in cases of vascular compromise
- Treatment: immobilization for stable fractures; surgery for dislocations
Dens fracture
- Definition: fracture of the dens axis (second cervical vertebral body)
- Epidemiology: 10–15% of all cervical fractures
-
Etiology
- Head or neck injury as a result of a fall or blunt trauma
- A contributing factor is loss of bone substance as a result of osteoporosis (mostly seen in elderly patients).
-
Symptoms
- Movement-induced pain
- Neurological problems ranging from local sensory loss to paralysis due to complete spinal cord injury
-
Specific forms: hangman's fracture
- Definition: bilateral fracture of the axis arch
- Etiology: trauma with hyperextension and distraction (e.g., car accident)
- Diagnostics: x-ray of the spinal cord to discern an atlantoaxial dislocation , CT, or MRI
- Treatment: immobilization for stable fractures, surgery for dislocations
| Anderson and D'Alonzo dens fracture classification [6] | ||
|---|---|---|
| Type | Characteristics | Stability |
| Type I | Oblique fracture through the cranial part of the dens (rare) | Stable |
| Type II | Fracture at the base of the dens (most common) | Frequently unstable |
| Type III | Dens fracture and affected corpus axis | Unstable |
References:[7][8][9]
Diagnostics
Physical exam
- Detailed neurologic exam (cranial nerves, motor and sensory components, coordination, and reflexes)
- Rectal exam to assess sphincter activation
- In trauma scenarios, a secondary survey to assess for associated injuries should be done.
Imaging
Used to assess the stability of the fracture (see “Classification” above), spinal cord lesions
-
Anterior-posterior and lateral x-ray
- Discontinued cortex, bone fragments
- Loss of height in the vertebral bodies
- CT: The axial image in particular helps localize the fracture and allows for an assessment of (posterior edge) stability.
- MRI: most sensitive tool for detecting spinal cord lesions
Do not delay urgent interventions (e.g., intubation, fluid resuscitation) in favor of imaging in patients with suspected injury to the spine who are unconscious and/or show signs of hemodynamic or respiratory compromise.
References:[10]
Differential diagnoses
Cervical spine distortion (whiplash injury)
- Etiology: often seen after car accidents due to abrupt flexion/extension movement of the neck
-
Symptoms
- Headache, neck ache, and/or pain radiating into the back of the head, the shoulders, or the arms
- Pain-based reduction in neck range of motion and palpable muscle tension of the shoulders and neck, as well as arm and hand paresthesia
- General symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, fatigue, insomnia, tinnitus, and problems with concentration
-
Imaging
- X-ray of the cervical spine
- CT on suspicion of changes in the spinal canal and neurologic deficits
- Doppler ultrasound if injury to vessels in the neck is suspected
-
Treatment
- Uncomplicated distortion
- If necessary, short-term NSAIDs to treat muscular tension
- Active exercise treatment
- In case of fractures or spinal cord lesions: surgery
- Uncomplicated distortion
References:[11][12]
The differential diagnoses listed here are not exhaustive.
Treatment
General
- Rescue from the field when there is concern for vertebral fractures.
- Place the patient on a long backboard ; move to stretcher once in the hospital.
- For possible injury of the cervical spine: immobilization with a rigid cervical collar
- Orotracheal intubation with rapid-sequence intubation is preferred for establishing an airway in an apneic patient with a cervical spine injury.
Conservative treatment
- Indication: stable fractures
-
Procedures
- Pain medication
- Physical therapy
- External bracing and orthotics to maintain spinal alignment, promote healing, and control pain through immobilization for about 8–12 weeks (e.g., rigid collar in cervical fracture, cervical-thoracic brace for thoracic fractures, and thoracolumbar-sacral orthosis for lower back fractures)
Surgical treatment
-
Spondylodesis
- Indications: unstable fractures and/or neurological symptoms
- Approach: fusion of two or more vertebral bodies via internal fixation using plates, rods, screws, or cages
-
Minimally invasive procedures
- Indication: stable vertebral compression fractures with progressive pain or kyphosis despite conservative treatment
- Procedures
- Vertebroplasty: injection of bone cement into the fractured vertebra for immediate stabilization
- Kyphoplasty: reexpansion of the fracture through the insertion of an inflatable balloon into the vertebral body and injection of bone cement
To minimize the risk of spinal cord lesions causing permanent neurological injury, treatment of unstable fractures should be initiated as soon as possible.
References:[13]
Complications
-
Spinal cord injury
- Severe injury of the spinal cord → respiratory depression
- Spinal contusion/concussion to spinal shock → neurological deficits
- Injuries of the cervical spine may result in a retropharyngeal hematoma → dysphagia
- Vessel injury: dissection or thrombotic blockage of the vertebral artery
- Posttraumatic deformation of the spine: loss of height, scoliosis, or kyphosis
We list the most important complications. The selection is not exhaustive.