- Clinical science
Parenteral fluid therapy
Summary
Parenteral fluid therapy usually involves the intravenous administration of crystalloid solutions, colloidal solutions, and/or blood products. The choice of fluid, the amount of fluid to be infused, and the rate of infusion are determined by the indication for fluid therapy. Fluid therapy with crystalloid solutions is used to resuscitate patients who are hypovolemic, to correct free water deficits in the case of dehydrated patients, to replace ongoing fluid losses, and to meet the fluid requirements of patients who cannot take fluids orally. The use of colloidal solutions is now controversial. However, colloidal solutions (such as albumin solution) may be indicated either as a monotherapy or in combination with crystalloid solutions in severe cases of low oncotic pressure, especially in children. In the case of severe bleeding, the use of blood products must be considered. All patients on fluid therapy should be closely monitored using a combination of clinical parameters and laboratory tests to determine the end-point of fluid therapy.
General indications for parenteral fluid therapy
Fluid resuscitation
Patients who are in hypovolemic shock require rapid fluid infusions in the form of fluid challenges to maintain intravascular volume.
- Rapid infusion of a 500 mL bolus; of normal (isotonic) saline (NS) or lactated Ringer's solution (RL) within 15 minutes
- Observe the patient for a clinical response
- Repeat the fluid bolus infusion if the clinical response is inadequate.
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An inadequate response to fluid resuscitation is characterized by:
- Low urine output (< 0.5 mL/kg/hr; best indicator)
- Increased heart rate
- Low blood pressure
- Low CVP (central venous pressure)
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An inadequate response to fluid resuscitation is characterized by:
- If the patient does not respond to multiple fluid challenges:
- Try and identify the underlying cause of hypovolemic shock if it is not clinically apparent.
- Consider the use of vasopressors and/or inotropes
- Consider other causes of shock besides hypovolemia (e.g., cardiogenic shock, sepsis).
- The ideal resuscitation fluid would possess the following characteristics:
- Predictable and sustained increase in intravascular volume
- Chemical composition as close as possible to that of plasma
- Complete metabolism and excretion without accumulation in tissues
- No adverse metabolic or systemic effects
- Cost-effective
Replacement of free water deficit
- Indicated to treat dehydration and/or hypernatremia
- Free water deficit = k × weight (kg) × (Current [Na+]/140 – 1)
- Intravenous fluids that can be used to replace free water deficit
- 5% dextrose
- Hypotonic saline (e.g., ½NS, ¼NS)
Replacement of ongoing fluid loss
- Fluids are also indicated in the post-resuscitation phase when the patient is no longer hypovolemic but still has ongoing abnormal fluid loss that cannot be compensated for by oral intake alone.
- Some common conditions associated with an ongoing fluid loss are:
- Burns
- Polyuria (high output renal failure, diabetes insipidus)
- Surgical drainage
- Significant ongoing gastrointestinal loss (vomiting, diarrhea)
- The amount and rate of fluid infusion should ideally match the amount and rate of ongoing fluid loss.
- The composition of fluid given should ideally match the composition of the bodily fluid lost.
Fluid from the surgical drain | Composition | Ideal replacement fluid | |||
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Na+ | K+ | Cl- | HCO3- | ||
Gastric secretions | 50 mmol/L | 15 mmol/L | 110 mmol/L | – | D5½NS + 20 mEq/L KCl |
Pancreatic secretions | 140 mmol/L | 5 mmol/L | 75 mmol/L | 115 mmol/L | RL ± sodium bicarbonate |
BIle | 140 mmol/L | 5 mmol/L | 100 mmol/L | 35 mmol/L | RL ± sodium bicarbonate |
Ileum | 140 mmol/L | 5 mmol/L | 100 mmol/L | 30 mmol/L | RL ± sodium bicarbonate |
Maintenance fluid therapy
- Maintenance fluids are indicated in patients who cannot or are not allowed to take fluids orally.
- Normal daily maintenance dose
- Adults: 30 mL/kg of water, 1 g/kg of glucose (to prevent starvation ketosis), 1–3 mEq/kg of Na+, 1–3 mEq/kg of Cl-, and 0.5–1 mEq/kg of K+ per day
- Children: Holliday-Segar formula (4,2,1 rule) : 4 mL/kg/hr for the first 10 kilograms + 2 mL/kg/hr for the next 10 kilograms + 1 mL/kg/hr for the remaining weight
- Neonates: 150 mL/kg/day
- Certain conditions may alter the amount of maintenance fluids required.
- ↑ Maintenance fluids: fever , tachypnea
- ↓ Maintenance fluids: congestive cardiac failure, low output renal failure
The maintenance fluid requirement is higher in children than in adults!
Other indications
- Correction of electrolyte imbalances (see sodium imbalance, potassium imbalance)
- As a solvent for IV drugs: e.g., 5% dextrose for noradrenaline infusions
References:[1][2][3][4][5][6]
Types of parenteral fluids
Crystalloid solutions
- Aqueous solutions with varying concentrations of electrolytes
- The most commonly used fluids in a hospital setting
- Crystalloids increase intravascular volume. The extent to which they do this depends on the effect on fluid compartments.
Type of crystalloid solution | Crystalloid solution | Effect on fluid compartments | Specific Indications | Risks | Sodium- free solution | Balanced electrolyte solution | Potassium-free solution | Composition (in mmol/L) | Fluid distribution (as a percentage of the administered volume) | ||||||||
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Osmolality | pH | Na+ | Cl- | K+ | Ca2+ | Lactate | Glucose | Change in extracellular fluid volume | Change in intracellular fluid volume | ||||||||
Hypertonic | 3% NaCl |
|
| × | × | ✓ | 1026 | 5.0 | 513 | 513 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + 250% | - 150% | |
Hypotonic | ½ normal saline (0.45% NaCl) |
|
| × | × | ✓ | 154 | 5.0 | 77 | 77 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + 70% | + 30% | |
Isotonic | Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) |
|
| × | × | ✓ | 308 | 5.0 | 154 | 154 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | + 100% | no change | |
Lactated Ringer's solution (RL) |
|
| × | ✓ | × | 275 | 6.5 | 130 | 109 | 4 | 3 | 28 | 0 | + 90% | + 10% | ||
Hartmann's solution |
|
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| × | ✓ | × | 279 | 6.5 | 131 | 111 | 5 | 2 | 29 | 0 | + 90% | + 10% | |
5% dextrose (D5W) |
|
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| ✓ | × | × | 252 | 4.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 278 (50 g/L) | + 40% | + 60% |
Patients 28 days to 18 years of age requiring maintenance intravenous fluid therapy should receive isotonic solutions (which have a sodium concentration similar to plasma) with appropriate levels of potassium chloride and dextrose to reduce the risk of hyponatremia!
Colloidal solutions
- A colloid is a high molecular weight substance; that mostly remains confined to the intravascular compartment; and thus generates oncotic pressure
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Examples:
- Natural colloids: albumin, fresh frozen plasma (FFP)
- Artificial colloids; : gelatins, dextrans, hydroxyethyl starch
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Effects
- Colloids have a greater effect on intravascular volume than crystalloids Colloids also persist longer in the intravascular compartment than crystalloids.
- Decreased blood coagulability
- Anti-inflammatory effect
- Administration: : Their use is controversial, but they may be indicated in combination with crystalloids (for more information, see the table in extra information below).
- Adverse effects
Although colloids are much more effective than crystalloids as intravascular volume expanders, they are more expensive and are also associated with more side effects than crystalloids without being demonstrably superior. Their use is, therefore, controversial!
Colloidal solution | Chemical structure | Available forms | Increase in intravascular volume | Duration of volume expansion | Specific indications |
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Albumin |
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Dextrans |
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Gelatin |
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Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) |
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Blood products
The transfusion of packed RBC concentrate is indicated in the case of massive blood loss (see blood transfusion).
References:[7][6]
Route of parenteral fluid therapy
General principles
- The route of fluid infusion depends on the amount of fluid to be infused, the nature of the fluid (blood products vs. crystalloids), and the required flow rate
- A wider lumen and a shorter catheter tube allow for a higher flow rate
Routes of fluid infusion
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IV access: : The intravenous route is most commonly used for administering fluids and/or medication
- Rapid introduction of large volumes of fluid through multiple large-bore (16G or wider) peripheral venous catheters is required to resuscitate patients with hypovolemic shock
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IO (intraosseous) access
- In “difficult/collapsed” peripheral veins, IO (intraosseous) access is preferred to central venous access for resuscitation.
- A 15G IO needle allows for a flow rate of 60–100 mL/min.
- Technique of insertion
- The leg is slightly externally rotated at the hip joint and the thigh is fixed with the hand.
- The needle should be inserted 2 cm distal and 1 cm medial to the tibial tuberosity.
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Central venous access
- Central venous catheters are longer and hence permit a slower flow rate than peripheral venous catheters; with the same lumen diameter. However, a much higher flow rate can be achieved with special large bore central venous catheters (e.g., high-flow Hickman catheters, Shaldon catheters)
- Indications
- Fluid resuscitation in a patient with “difficult/collapsed” peripheral veins (when IO access in not feasible)
- Hemodynamic monitoring: measurement of central venous pressure, pulmonary artery catheterization
- Administration of veno-irritant substances: vasopressors, chemotherapeutic drugs, prolonged parenteral nutrition
- Therapies requiring high-volume extracorporeal circulation: plasmapheresis, emergent hemodialysis
- Certain procedures: placement of inferior vena caval filters, transvenous cardiac pacing
- Measures to reduce risk of infection during placement (e.g., CLABSI)
- Use a cap, mask, long-sleeved sterile gown, sterile gloves, and a sterile full body drape.
- Prepare skin with chlorhexidine and alcohol before inserting the catheter.
- Systemic anticoagulation and antibiosis may be considered in oncology patients who require long-term central venous access.
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Technique of insertion: is based on the Seldinger technique, which involves the use of a guide wire to gain access to blood vessels.
- A special, wide-bored needle (trocar) is inserted into either the jugular , subclavian, or the femoral vein with/without ultrasonographic guidance.
- Following needle insertion, a guide wire is passed through a needle into the selected vein
- The needle is removed while maintaining the guide wire in position and the central venous catheter is passed over the guide wire
- Once the central venous catheter is in place, the guide wire is slowly removed
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Proper positioning of the central venous catheter (in the case of jugular or subclavian approaches)
- The tip of the catheter is correctly positioned in the superior vena cava with the help of ECG leads by observing the changes occurring in the P wave
- A chest x-ray must be taken after the placement of a central venous line
The flow rate is subject to Poiseuille's law: The flow rate is 16 times slower if a lumen's diameter is halved, but flow rate doubles if the catheter's length is halved!
References:[8]
Parameters for controlling parenteral fluid therapy
- The indication for fluid therapy determines the amount of fluid administered and the rate of fluid therapy (see “General indications for fluid therapy” above).
- Hemodynamic measures: pulse, blood pressure, capillary refill time, jugular venous pressure (or central venous pressure)
- Monitor for complications of IV fluid therapy, which include:
- Signs of fluid overload; : pedal edema; , fine crackles on pulmonary auscultation
- Electrolyte imbalances: (see sodium imbalance and potassium imbalance)
- Fluid balance charts: These charts should record the fluid intake (total amount of fluid administered) and fluid output (urine output, output from surgical drains, and, if applicable, the volume of loose stools or vomit)
- Infusion rates may be adjusted in wards using drop rates: 15 drops = 1 mL in a macrodrip, 60 drops = 1 mL in a microdrip
References:[9]